The same learning behaviours can be exhibited by an ecological community without selection at the community level.

Entities in the same semantic neighborhood but without a typed relation to this one — candidates for new edges or unrecognized duplicates.

• Ecological community networks can evolve associative memory under individual-level selection (Power et al. 2015)finding0.827
  Shows that systems can learn without presupposing system-level unit of selection
• We hypothesise that ecological models fall short of demonstrating spontaneous evolution of a new level of individuality because they are single-level networks of symmetric interactions.hypothesis0.807
  Explains limitation of current ecological connectionist models.
• Can Ecological Communities Evolving Under Individuallevel Selection Solvequestion0.792
• How Can Collectivities Exhibit Learning And Adaptation Withoutquestion0.783
• Reinforcement learning acting on individual characteristics affecting their connections to others can result in dynamics that are equivalent to unsupervised learning at the system scale.claim0.783
  Key insight linking individual rewards to system-level learning.
• Associative learning occurs in gene regulatory networks and other non-neural systems, making it substrate-independent.claim0.778
• The kind of relationships necessary to produce evolutionary individuality – the generation and heritability of fitness differences at the collective level – are the same as those required to produce organismic individuality – the information integration and collective action characteristic of a self.claim0.772
  Core conjecture linking evolutionary and organismic individuality.
• Natural selection can evolve phenotypic plasticity that solves division of labour games in two-player collectives (Tudge et al. 2016)finding0.772
  Shows plasticity as solution to HFHF in minimal models with homogeneous genotypes